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% game
% 		- what is it, definition
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\chapter{Gaming}
\label{sec:gaming}
To better understand what serious gaming is and how and why it came into existence we will first shed some light on the more general concept
of gaming. All games share common characteristics and animate as well as force the player to exhibit a certain behavior.


\section{The Game}
\label{sec:definition}

Everyone who has had a normal childhood has played games and intuitively knows what a game is. However the exact definition of a game is subject of debate and
many different people have various definitions they agree on which often overlap but also differ in certain areas. Clark C. Abt wrote in his book \textit{Serious Games} \cite{clark02}
\begin{quote}
Reduced to its formal essence, a game is an activity among two or more independent decision-makers seeking to achieve their objectives in some limiting context. A
more conventional definition would say that a game is a contest with rules among adversaries trying to win objectives.

The trouble with this definition is that not all games are contests among adversaries - in some games the players cooperate to achieve a common goal against an
obstructing force or natural situation that is itself not really a player because it does not have objectives.
\end{quote}
The definition Abt presents already contains flaws he is pointing out himself.
\newpage
Another definition found in the book \textit{Homo Ludens} is that of play \cite{johan08}
\begin{quote}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Voluntary, a form of freedom: "play to order is no longer play."
\item Pretend: "play is not 'ordinary' or 'real' life."
\item Immersive, or taking up the player's full attention.
\item "It is 'played out' with certain limits of time and place."
\item Based on rules: "it creates order, \textit{is} order."
\item Social, creating a social group of the players or tending to cause people involved in a particular kind of play to identify themselves as a group.
\end{enumerate}
\end{quote}
Even though this is a definition of play it still applies to games. Games are arguably a more advanced, higher, form of play.

The interesting thing is that when looking at the definition of play but omitting certain aspects it applies to many real world examples.\newline
Take out 'pretend' of the equation and war suddenly is play. Two countries engage in war out of their own volition, there are rules the military follows and a
feeling of nationalism governs the players. They as a group fight an enemy.\newline
Education is play (school not being voluntary, college i.e. being voluntary though). The students are faced with small pretended or abstracted real world problems
they have to solve. Education follows rules of testing and grading etc.\newline
If we can find real world examples of activities which are this close to play it stands to reason that turning them into games could have its benefits. This step
is the doorway from games to serious games and will be discussed later in Chapter (\ref{sec:classic-vs-serious-games}).

Before moving on one question might arise: \textit{What about fun?}.\newline
None of the two presented definitions as well as most other definitions to be found mention fun. Still when a person thinks about games and play fun is likely among the first things that come to mind. Fun is not intrinsic to a game. It is a desired side effect and a focal point for the game designer. Games are voluntary, other than fun players have little other reasons to play classic games. If a game is fun the player will play and replay it.

\section{A brief history of gaming}
\label{sec:history}

Herodotus was a Greek philosopher who in western culture is considered to be the first real historian. His first book written ~550 BC already contains references to games being played \cite{herodotus}, on the Lydians he wrote
\begin{quote}
They claim also the invention of certain games (...) which they say, were first discovered at the time of their sending a colony into Tyrrhenia.
\end{quote}
Supposedly due to shortage of food the king decreed that every second day nobody would eat. In order to prevent uproars he came up with the idea of dice games to take people's minds off of the hunger. This concept alledgedly worked for years.

\subsection{Mainframes}

In the late 1950s and early 1960s the first computer games were created on mainframes as a hobby or to demonstrate the computer's capabilities.\newline
\begin{wrapfigure}{r}{0.5\textwidth}
	\label{fig:tennis-for-two}
    \vspace{-30pt}
    \caption{Tennis for Two \cite{virginmedia-t42-image}}
    \vspace{-20pt}
    \begin{center}
        \includegraphics[scale=0.89]{images/tennis-for-two.jpg}
    \end{center}
    \vspace{-30pt}
\end{wrapfigure}
\textit{Tennis for Two} was a multiplayer game created 1958 by William Hinginbotham which used an oscilloscope to represent the tennis field. Others like \emph{Spacewar} followed.

\subsection{PCs}

Throughout the 1970s the 2nd wave of computing (Personal Computing) as well as arcades allowed for games to become commercially viable.
\begin{wrapfigure}{r}{0.5\textwidth}
	\label{fig:doom1}
    \vspace{-30pt}
    \caption{Doom 1 \cite{greg10}}
    \vspace{-20pt}
    \begin{center}
        \includegraphics[scale=0.45]{images/doom1.jpg}
    \end{center}
    \vspace{-15pt}
\end{wrapfigure}
By utilizing the internet the online First Person Shooter \emph{Doom} put the focus on online games in 1993 and paved the way for soon to become famous titles such as \emph{Counter Strike} or \emph{Quake}.\newline
Other genres of online games such as the Massive Multiplayer Online Role Playing Game (MMORGP) also emerged, \emph{Ultima Online} being a very successful early example released in 1997.

\subsection{Nomadic computing}

The first famous portable console, the \emph{Game Boy} released in 1989 by Nintendo\textregistered opened the market for portable gaming systems such as the \emph{Game Gear}. Still consoles which were purely designed for games while widely spread were mainly used by children.\newline
Another type of mobile device, the laptop, allowed us to have access to a personal computer independently of where we were. The downside of early laptops was their relatively high price and initial bulkiness.
The mobile phone was the device that truly enabled everyone to carry around a personal computer with them at any time. First cell phones which allowed for high enough display resolutions were shipped with games like \emph{Snake}. Mobile phones improved over the years and new models were and still are constantly being upgraded with better screen resolutions and processors. In addition to that the spread of the internet allows devices to be interconnected. The trends in future development and general implications of technology on games and serious games are more closely discussed in Chapter \ref{sec:gaming-technology}.
\newpage
\section{Classic vs. Serious Games}
\label{sec:classic-vs-serious-games}

We already discussed the similarities and hinted at the differences between classic and serious games. Now we will take a closer look at what it is that sets them apart.

\subsection{Goals}

The goals of serious games go beyond the typical game goals. There is an agenda to playing the game, one that actually intends to have an impact on the real world. \newline

Abt writes \cite{clark02}
\begin{quote}
Games may be played seriously or casually. We are concerned with serious games in the sense that these games have an explicit and carefully thought-out educational purpose and are not intended to be played primarily for amusement. This does not mean that serious games are not, or should not be, entertaining.
\end{quote}

Classic games have only two typical real world goals which are financial gain for the distributor and amusement for the player. Those however are not innate to the game's design. Serious games on the other hand incorporate 'serious' goals in their design. Since they are still games it is desired that they stay entertaining. The difference simply is that entertainment is no longer the primary goal of the game. They can be thought of as an extension to classic games because they inherit classic characteristics but add to them and put different goals than entertainment into focus.

Since entertainment is no longer the focal point of serious games, the question about the need for serious games to be fun arises. A survey among 61 serious game developers shows that the majority of them still consider fun to be of high importance to the game. \cite{david05}
\newpage
\begin{quote}
\textbf{Serious Games Survey}
Question: How do you rate the importance of the "element of fun" in serious games.\newline
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                   3/Less important D}
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\end{quote}


Obviously to many game developers, who want to sell their games, fun is still an important factor that decides about the games popularity, while only very few consider it to be less important or not a goal. Behind the no-fun advocates likely lie the developers who are contracted with creating training programs for governments, firemen, pilots etc.

Chapter \ref{sec:case-studies} goes into detail explaining several serious games but for our purpose let's take a look ahead and check out some serious games in respect to their goals.

\begin{description}
    \item [America's Army] A classic online first person shooter that was developed for the US Army. Apart from being an FPS this game is also a simulation which tries to duplicate real combat situations. Playing the game the player inadvertently learns some of the things he would during basic training. In addition the game serves as a recruitment tool.
    \item [Art Academy DS] A painting game for the Nintendo DS. The goal of the game is to simply paint. Lessons teach newcomers step by step how to draw while there is also an open mode where the player can simply draw anything he wants.
    \item [Foursquare] Utilizing GPS on mobiles this game allows players who are at a registered physical location to 'check in'. Based on check in frequency, time spend, challenges etc. players are awarded points. As a result people frequently visit restaurants and stores. In addition the game offers advertisement.
\end{description}
\newpage
\section {Gaming and technology}
\label{sec:gaming-technology}

Technology has greatly influenced and keeps influencing games. Knowledge of using tools has enabled people to create dice and game pieces. Paper and ink led to the creation of playing cards. While sophisticated crafting techniques allow for cards, cups, dice and Hungry Hungry Hippos to be manufactured and used in many different games what really sparked the industry was the technological developments that happened in the electronics industry. While strategy, role playing games and some other genres already existed as board games, the PC took them to the next level by adding tremendous detail and replacing turn based with real time gameplay.

\subsection{Interconnection}

The technological development which truly changed the face of games was the internet. It allows players who want to participate in a game with their friends to do it from their very homes making it ever so easy to emerge in the gaming world. In addition to that it allowed the feasible number of players that can participate in a game to rise from the usual two to ten players eventually to up to hundreds or thousands.

Due to the extremely high player count Massive Multiplayer Online Games (MMOs) developed and started to blur the episodic nature of games. Those games no longer start and end but provide an open world which is constantly populated by players and offers different aspects. Players form alliances which have to overcome challenges of different proportion or are pitted against each other. The game induces the development of an economy where resources have to be gathered and crafting skills acquired.

Serious goals that can be achieved by those games are team building and learning how to collaborate and organize a group in order to solve a common goal. \emph{World of Warcraft} for example while not being a serious game has a \emph{Wiki} which is the next largest after \emph{Wikipedia} itself. Raids in WoW are a synonym for trying to conquer a dungeon filled with monsters and bosses that entail complex battles that require a coordinated effort of what used to be up to 40 players in early stages of the game. Raid leaders would research or develop tactics, spreadsheets and illustrations depicting the strategic approach and different stages of the game.

Employees working at an office could possible play a game which requires a team effort in their spare time building trust and familiarity. Solving problems in a virtual environment could enable them to better solve problems at work. This concept is not a new one, company picnics or softball teams have been around for a while but as those happen rather infrequently and are hard to maintain when the firms seat is in a large town games are a very viable substitute. Games allow not only for more complex challenges and task oriented collaboration that is closer to the actual tasks that employees are faced with but can also be played on a daily basis.\footnote{Section on team effort and benefit for company employees inspired by \cite{manali}}

\subsection{Portability and sensors}
\label{sec:portability-and-sensors}

Being able to connect with other players from your PC at home is great but what makes it even better is being able do it from anywhere you are. Cell phones, multimedia players, PDA's, notebooks, consoles and watches cover the bulk of portable computers people use on an every day basis but there are still many more gadgets that pop up and on top of that specialized equipment such as cameras.

In itself the possibility to carry around a device that has a connection to the internet only allows for more access and while convenient the additional options implied for games are only limited. Sensors however bring a new aspect to game design because they provide the application with additional data about the environment. The currently probably most used infrastructure of that kind is the Global Positioning System. Many serious games such as Foursquare, Scvngr, Socialight, etc. are based on mobile access to GPS coordinates. How exactly some of these networks do it and what it is they do is covered in Chapter \ref{sec:case-studies}.

While still in development there are already moderately advanced applications for mobile devices which make use of \emph{Augmented Reality}. The image from a video camera displayed on a screen is enriched by an overlay providing additional information.
\begin{figure}[h!]
  \label{fig:augmented}
    \caption{Layar \cite{malens}}
  \centering
    \includegraphics[scale=0.75]{images/layar}
\end{figure}

Figure 2.3 shows the Android version of the application \textit{Layar} which is arguably the currently leading augmented reality browser. It uses a portable video sensor (camera) and location sensor (GPS) to recognize buildings and add an overlay to the phones image providing information.\newline
If a person i.e. is looking for the nearest ATM or entrance to the subway he can power up his augmented reality app, take a look around and head in the right direction.
Once this technology improves application for serious games becomes possible. Imagine a game where using the camera on his cell phone the player has to find a billboard with a hidden message which is displayed using augmented reality. He takes a picture and sends it in along with his GPS coordinates for a reward. This would be a typical application for an \emph{Advergame} (advertisement is the goal) since players have to focus on and pay attention to the billboards.\newline
While the effect of finally getting the "terminator HUD (heads-up display)" are impressive and there already are functioning games those are still in their infancy. 1980s arcade style games don't stand up to the current level of sophistication in computer games even if they use a cool medium such as making the enemies appear out of thin air on an interactive camera picture. The hardware of mobile devices as advanced as it is, is still limiting the application of augmented reality. Depending on the mobile device the real-time camera's latency is anything from noticeable to limiting, the resolution is not detailed to recognize small image tags in the distance etc. Another limiting factor is that not every person has the latest smartphone so the user base for the more complex applications is not as big as of yet.\newline
However augmented reality is very much a trend in current development and will surely become a big part of the mobile scene as technology progresses to a level where a tiny high resolution camera can be embedded in glasses which feature an augmented reality display overlay on the inside of the glasses' lenses.

\subsection {An outlook: Pervasive Computing}

Pervasive computing is the next stage in computing, the current one being \emph{Ubiquitous Computing} or \emph{Nomadic Ubiquitous Computing} due to the portable nature of today's computers. Pervasive computing means that future technology will not only be omnipresent such as digital displays and little gadgets we carry around but embedded in every day objects and eventually even living creatures. \footnote{For more on Ubiquitous Computing and Pervasive Computing see \cite{wikiComputing}} In certain countries for example dogs are already required to have a GPS locator implanted. A similar concept could be applied to humans i.e. in the form of a sensor chip monitoring blood values, cholesterol or heart rate. An ambulance could be immediately dispatched the second a person suffers a heart attack or the display on your shopping cart interlinked with your fridge would tell you which groceries to buy in order to be healthier based on your personal preferences (which of course are known because the soda you just drank registered in your nutrition database). Boots would measure how much you walk and when you are done reading a book the next time you access your PC it would invite you to write a review or rate it. And while you are shopping for clothes why not buy Converse Allstars since you have seen \textit{I, Robot} within the last couple of days.\newline
These concepts and ideas could very possibly become part of our near future and of course they can be made more interesting and immersing by turning them into games - serious games. 